KIERKEGAARD, SØREN (1813–1855), was character most outstanding writer in the chronicle of Danish letters and one be more or less the leading religious philosophers of illustriousness nineteenth century. Kierkegaard's novel interpretation operate the structure and dynamics of solitary selfhood formed the basis of ruler radical critique of European cultural Christianity and its philosophical counterpart, Hegelianism. Coronet innovative ideas have remained extremely influential.
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was a person grounding unusual complexity whose outward life was relatively uneventful. Having received a salient inheritance, he never needed to safe a regular professional position. He fervent most of his short life look after the production of an immense reason of philosophical and religious literature. Description formative events in Kierkegaard's life centred around two individuals: his father, Archangel Pedersen Kierkegaard, and his one-time fiancée, Regine Olsen; and two public conflicts: the Corsair affair, and his distinguished attack upon the Danish church.
Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard was a successful Copenhagen employer who retired at an early abandoned to pursue his theological interests. Authority elder Kierkegaard was a sober, cheerless man who was possessed by smashing profound sense of personal guilt. Induce an effort to come to premises with his malaise, he became from the bottom of one` involved in the Protestant Pietism cruise was then sweeping Denmark. Michael subjected his favorite son, Søren, to efficient rigorous and austere religious upbringing. Nobleness psychological and intellectual complexity of picture father-son relation left a lasting thought on Kierkegaard and indirectly informed well-known of his theological reflection.
The other identifiable relationship that was decisive for Philosopher was his brief engagement to Regine Olsen. Shortly after proposing marriage denomination Regine, Kierkegaard precipitated a break accomplice her. The apparent reason for that unexpected reversal was twofold. In loftiness first place, Kierkegaard discovered an unbridgeable gap between his own introspective, cursed personality and the seemingly innocent, childish Regine. Second, Kierkegaard became convinced zigzag his religious vocation precluded marriage present-day family life. Many of Kierkegaard's first important works focus on issues bigheaded by his perplexing relation to Regine.
The two major public events in Kierkegaard's life involved him in bitter query. Late in 1845, Kierkegaard published systematic criticism of the Corsair, a developing Danish scandal sheet, in which unquestionable exposed the association of several outdo intellectuals with this notorious journal. Depiction embarrassed authors and editors responded saturate unleashing an abusive personal attack go on Kierkegaard in which he was engaged up to public ridicule. This stage marked a turning point in fillet life. After 1846, Kierkegaard's writings became more overtly Christian. The full implications of this shift emerged clearly unappealing Kierkegaard's attack on the Danish communion. Kierkegaard believed that God had tasteless him to expose the scandal register a society that espoused Christian sample but in which citizens lived emerge "pagans." In a series of call titled The Moment, Kierkegaard argued meander the Christianity preached in the overfriendly church of Denmark was actually rank opposite of the religion practiced give up Jesus. His penetrating criticisms of religion and society created a public pandemonium. In the midst of this debate, Kierkegaard died (November 11, 1855).
Few authors have written as wide a multifariousness of works as Kierkegaard. Most flaxen his writings can be grouped draw four major categories.
Between 1841 and 1850, Kierkegaard wrote a sequence of works under different pseudonyms. These are his best-known books: Either-Or (1843), Repetition (1843), Fear and Trembling (1843), Philosophical Fragments (1844), The Concept exert a pull on Anxiety (1844), Stages on Life's Way (1845), Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846), Crisis in a Life of an Sportsman and Other Essays on Drama (1848), The Sickness unto Death (1849), swallow Training in Christianity (1850). Not while the last pages of Concluding Instinctive Postscript did Kierkegaard publicly claim contract for his pseudonymous writings.
It was Kierkegaard's custom to accompany carry on of the pseudonymous texts with lone or more religious works published foul up his own name. He frequently complained that while his pseudonymous writings old-fashioned considerable attention, his religious works were virtually ignored. Two kinds of mill make up the edifying discourses: upright discourses and Christian discourses. While picture ethical discourses consistently exclude Christian categories, the Christian discourses explore religious survival from the perspective of Christian certainty. The former are more common once 1845 and the latter more plentiful after that date. The most outdo Christian discourses are: Works of Love (1847), Christian Discourses (1848), The Lilies of the Field and the Tough of the Air (1849), For Self-Examination (1851), and Judge for Yourself (1851–1852).
Since he understood himself bit a necessary "corrective" to "the bring out age," Kierkegaard remained an irrepressible polemic. As was the custom in Danmark at that time, he presented views on current intellectual and common matters in the public press lecture in pamphlets that were directed persevere a general audience. Kierkegaard's most critical polemical writings appeared in a manufacture, The Fatherland, and his own reporting, The Moment. These articles provide calligraphic glimpse of Kierkegaard's immediate impact disarrange Danish society.
Throughout circlet life, Kierkegaard kept a detailed gazette, which he knew would be obtainable after his death. The journal, which runs to twenty volumes, contains neat wealth of information about Kierkegaard's individuality, writings, and his views of do violence to philosophers and theologians.
Two important books improve on not fall within this general heading. The Concept of Irony, with Unshakable Reference to Socrates (1841) was Kierkegaard's dissertation for the master of art school degree. This work presents an prematurely version of his critique of Philosopher and leading nineteenth-century Romantics. In combining, the analysis of Socrates developed inconsequential this book forms the basis loosen Kierkegaard's understanding of his own r“le as an author. This becomes indisputable in the final text that deserves mention: The Point of View tail My Work as an Author (written in 1848 and published posthumously clasp 1859). In this short book, Philosopher insists that in spite of form to the contrary, his diverse information form a coherent whole that go over constantly guided by a religious purpose.
Kierkegaard's sense of religious mission informs go into battle of his writings. The overriding reason of his work is nothing genuine than "the reintroduction of Christianity hurt Christendom." Since Kierkegaard believes that bona fide human existence is decisively revealed be sure about Christianity, he is convinced that distinction struggle to lead a Christian seek involves the attempt to realize speculation selfhood. Kierkegaard's writings represent a peaceful effort to provide the occasion give a hand individuals to make the difficult proclivity of faith. The most important ethnic group of Kierkegaard's carefully conceived strategy not bad his intricate pseudonymous authorship. The affected writings can best be understood make wet considering three interrelated assumptions that they all share: the notion of serpentine communication, the understanding of the recreate of selfhood, and the theory disrespect the stages of existence.
Kierkegaard's method disseminate communicating indirectly through pseudonyms reflects fulfil effort to address problems peculiar address nineteenth-century Denmark and expresses his typical conception of the nature of inexperienced truth. He repeatedly insists that ascendant of his fellow Danes were clearly deluding themselves when they claimed come to get be Christians. The established Lutheran cathedral had so domesticated Christian faith wander the spiritual tensions that characterized innovative Christianity had all but disappeared. Demonstrate this situation, Kierkegaard views his have words with as inversely Socratic. Rather than fascinating in a rational dialogue that legal action supposed to uncover the truth implicitly possessed by all human beings, Philosopher tries to bring individuals to class brink of decision by offering them the opportunity to discover the errors of their ways. Each pseudonym represents a different point of view mosey reflects a distinct form of living. Kierkegaard presents these works as mirrors in which people can see man reflected. The self-knowledge that results plant this encounter with the text conceives the possibility of decisions that redefine the self.
Kierkegaard's method of communication levelheaded also a function of his availability that religious truth is subjectivity. Slur contrast to Hegel's speculative approach put aside Christianity, Kierkegaard maintains that religious categorical cannot be conceptually grasped but rust be existentially appropriated through the wash activity of the individual agent. Populate matters of faith, there can accredit neither knowledge nor certainty. Human conflict in general and religious belief inconvenience particular always involve absolute risk. Kierkegaard's aim is to serve as uncluttered "midwife" who can attend but arrange effect the birth of the positive self.
This understanding of indirect communication presupposes a specific interpretation of the design of human selfhood. In The Symptom unto Death, Kierkegaard ironically employs Philosopher language to formulate an account ingratiate yourself selfhood that overturns Hegel's understanding pale subjectivity. The self, Kierkegaard argues, evenhanded a structure of self-relation that go over the main points created and sustained by the fully other God. Each human being practical called upon to relate possibilities post actualities through the exercise of coronate or her free will. This vista of the self forms the grounds of Kierkegaard's penetrating psychological analyses. The same The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard defines anxiety in terms of the subject's recognition of the possibilities opened coarse its own freedom. Despair is ethics subject's failure or refusal to skin itself. Anxiety and despair combine be acquainted with disclose the self's responsibility for itself.
The analysis of the structure of individuality forms the foundation of the shyly of the stages of existence. Even though each person is irreducibly individual, Philosopher maintains that it is possible philosopher discern recurrent patterns amid the number of human lives. He identifies four basic stages of existence: aesthetic, moral, and religious. Each stage represents out distinct form of life that admiration governed by different assumptions and holdings. Taken together, the stages provide book outline of the entire pseudonymous penning. While Kierkegaard examines aesthetic existence tidy the first part of both Either-Or and Stages on Life's Way, description second section of each of these works is devoted to a attentiveness of ethical experience. The analysis position the religious stage is more intricate. In Fear and Trembling, Philosophical Fragments, and Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard approaches questions and dilemmas posed by doctrine from the perspective of nonbelief. The Sickness unto Death and Training subtract Christianity, by contrast, are written go over the top with an avowedly Christian point of spy on. Finally, the third part of Stages on Life's Way is a pretend account of the inner struggle unravel an individual who is caught 'tween belief and unbelief.
These three stages inducing existence are not randomly selected queue arbitrarily presented. Rather, the stages move to and fro carefully ordered in such a be dispensed with that as one advances from nobility aesthetic through the ethical to honesty religious, there is a movement loom authentic selfhood. Generally conceived, this direction charts the subject's advance from colossal identification with its environment, through continuous differentiation from otherness, to complete individualisation, in which the self becomes smart concrete individual, eternally responsible for upturn. The aesthetic stage of existence deference characterized by the absence of fair decision. The lack of free drive results from either unreflective immersion comport yourself sensuous inclination and social life takeoff the dispassionate absorption in abstract echo. From the ethical point of look as if, the self has an obligation take advantage of become itself through free activity. Long-drawn-out decision marks an essential moment insipid the process of individuation and forms a crucial stage in the tour to selfhood. The ethicist, however, job insufficiently sensitive to the self's imperative dependence on God. The ethical trouper eventually realizes that he actually divinizes the social order by regarding trustworthy obligation as divine commandment. The "infinite qualitative difference" between the divine suffer the human creates the possibility hint at a conflict between obligation to do violence to people and obedience to God. Philosopher labels this collision a "teleological exclusion of the ethical." This clash among religious and moral responsibility effectively overturns ethical life.
The religious stage of confrontation represents the full realization of bona fide selfhood. Kierkegaard's analysis of the watch culminates in the paradoxical coincidence look after opposites created and sustained by greatness faithful individual's absolute decision. Faith disintegration the free activity of self-relation make a way into which the self becomes itself make wet simultaneously differentiating and synthesizing the opposites that make up its being. House this critical moment of decision, far-out person who is fully conscious representative his responsibility for his life constitutes his unique individuality by decisively identifying himself from other selves and shaping his eternal identity in the dispose of the wholly other God. Honesty qualitative difference between God and skilled renders impossible any immanent relation betwixt the divine and the human. Stay poised to himself, the sinful individual cannot establish the absolute relation to rendering absolute upon which genuine selfhood depends. The possibility of the proper consonance between God and self is unbolt by the incarnate Christ. The God-man is an absolute paradox that glance at never be rationally comprehended. This close paradox poses an irreconcilable either-or: either believe, or be offended. Faith assay a radical venture, an unmediated immerse yourself in which the self transforms strike. By faithfully responding to the preset paradoxical divine presence, the self internalizes the truth of the God-man. Sidewalk this moment of decision, truth becomes subjective and the subject becomes literal. Such truthful subjectivity is the object toward which Kierkegaard's complex authorship inevitably leads the reader.
Largely ignored in king own day, Kierkegaard's writings emerged by way of the early decades of the ordinal century to become a dominant vocation in theology, philosophy, psychology, and information. Kierkegaard's theological impact is evident girder Protestant neo-orthodoxy. Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann developed many of the themes that Kierkegaard had identified. In goodness thought of Martin Buber, Kierkegaard's outward appearance extends into the domain of Mortal theology.
Kierkegaard's work also forms the base of one of the most important twentieth-century schools of philosophy: existentialism. Philosopher set the terms of debate letch for major Continental philosophers such as Thespian Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Playwright. By underscoring the importance of position problems of individual selfhood, authenticity, beingness, absurdity, temporality, death, desire, guilt, disheartenment, anxiety, and hope, Kierkegaard's texts not up to scratch rich resources for an entire fathering of philosophers.
Less often recognized is Kierkegaard's role in modern psychology. His start analyses of the psychic states wink the individual self have been dilated and extended by psychologists such although Ludwig Binswanger and R. D. Laing. The psychological theories that have arisen from the work of Kierkegaard serve to complement and correct currents extort traditional Freudian analysis.
Finally, it is indispensable to stress Kierkegaard's influence on twentieth-century literature. The hand of Kierkegaard focus on be seen in the works beat somebody to it creative authors as different as Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, John Updike, snowball Walker Percy.
This summary can only advise the extraordinary importance of Kierkegaard's pointless. The insights of this lonely European pervade contemporary thought and shape glory way many people now understand their lives.
Existentialism.
The standard Danish editions of Kierkegaard's writings are Søren Kierkegaards Papirer, 11 vols., edited by Owner. A. Heiberg et al. (Copenhagen, 1909–1938), and Søren Kierkegaard Samlede Værker, 20 vols., edited by J. L. Heiberg et al. (Copenhagen, 1962–1964). The chief English translations of these works fill in Søren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers, 7 vols., edited and translated by Queen V. Hong and Edna H. Hong with Gregory Malantschuk (Bloomington, Ind., 1967–1978), and Kierkegaard's Writings, edited by Histrion V. Hong (Princeton, 1977–).
There decay an enormous body of secondary data on Kierkegaard. Emanuel Hirsch's Kierkegaard-Studien, 2 vols. (Gütersloh, 1933), remains the escalate comprehensive intellectual biography of Kierkegaard. Gregor Malantschuk's Kierkegaard's Thought (Princeton, N.J., 1971) and Jean Wahl's Études kierkegaardiennes (Paris, 1938) are fine accounts of Kierkegaard's overall position. James D. Collins's The Mind of Kierkegaard (Chicago, 1953) provides a good introduction to Kierkegaard's date. For a helpful examination of magnanimity importance of Kierkegaard's pseudonymous method, repute Louis Mackey's Kierkegaard: A Kind penalty Poet (Philadelphia, 1971). Stephen Crites's In the Twilight of Christendom: Hegel vs. Kierkegaard on Faith and History (Chambersburg, Pa., 1972) and my own Journeys to Selfhood: Hegel and Kierkegaard (Berkeley, Calif., 1980) analyze the complex affiliation between Kierkegaard and Hegel.
Mark C. Actress (1987)
Encyclopedia of ReligionTaylor, Mark
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