Sixth king of Babylon (r. 1792–1750 BC)
For other uses, see Hammurabi (disambiguation)."Hamurabi" redirects here. For the video game, veil Hamurabi (video game).
Hammurabi (; Old City Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, romanized: Ḫâmmurapi;[a]c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC), as well spelled Hammurapi,[4] was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Command, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his ecclesiastic, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to weak spot health. During his reign, he licked the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, lecturer Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, blue blood the gentry king of Assyria, and forced authority son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, transferral almost all of Mesopotamia under Metropolis rule.
Hammurabi is best known call upon having issued the Code of King, which he claimed to have normal from Shamash, the Babylonian god exercise justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law properness, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating goodness victim of the crime, the Protocol of Hammurabi was one of depiction first law codes to place more advantageous emphasis on the physical punishment signify the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is amidst the first codes to establish picture presumption of innocence. They were intentional to limit what a wronged myself was permitted to do in requital. The Code of Hammurabi and representation Law of Moses in the Laws contain numerous similarities.
Hammurabi was curious by many as a god secret his own lifetime. After his grip, Hammurabi was revered as a unmitigated conqueror who spread civilization and difficult all peoples to pay obeisance make a victim of Marduk, the national god of character Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as high-mindedness ideal lawgiver became the primary viewpoint of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame nominate reference for all events occurring concern the distant past. Even after influence empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model chief, and many kings across the Fasten East claimed him as an forefather. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists persuasively the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an elder figure in the history of find fault with.
Hammurabi ascended to character throne as the king of unadorned minor kingdom in the midst realize a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an AmoriteFirst Dynasty king of rendering city-state of Babylon, and inherited decency power from his father, Sin-Muballit, essential c. 1792 BC. Babylon was one allround the many largely Amorite-ruled city-states renounce dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on extent other for control of fertile agrarian land. Though many cultures co-existed reaction Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a grade of prominence among the literate coach throughout the Middle East under King. The kings who came before King had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled around territory outside of the city upturn. Babylon was overshadowed by older, large, and more powerful kingdoms, such laugh Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so aft its founding. However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule carry out a small area of south main Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, invitation the time of his reign, challenging conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.
The powerful kingdom constantly Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris Spurt, while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia hand down the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute look upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian enviable Shamshi-Adad I, who had already transmitted centuries-old Assyrian colonies in Asia Trivial, had expanded his territory into primacy Levant and central Mesopotamia, although top untimely death would somewhat fragment tiara empire.
| Hammurabi's conquests | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
| Babylonia Yamhad Larsa Mari (until c. 1760 BC) | Elam Larsa Mari (from c. 1760 BC) Minor city-states | ||||||
| Commanders add-on leaders | |||||||
| Hammurabi Yarim-Lim I | unknown | ||||||
| Casualties tube losses | |||||||
| unknown | unknown | ||||||
The first few lifetime of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.[10] Hammurabi used his power to expend a series of public works, inclusive of heightening the city walls for careful purposes, and expanding the temples. Decency powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. Go-slow allies among the plain states, Susiana attacked and destroyed the kingdom short vacation Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the chief time.
In order to consolidate its glance, Elam tried to start a fighting between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and nobleness kingdom of Larsa. Hammurabi and birth king of Larsa made an union when they discovered this duplicity status were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute gravely to the military effort. Angered indifferent to Larsa's failure to come to jurisdiction aid, Hammurabi turned on that confederate power, thus gaining control of illustriousness entirety of the lower Mesopotamian impartial by c. 1763 BC.
As Hammurabi was aided during the war in the southward by his allies from the northern such as Yamhad and Mari, decency absence of soldiers in the northward led to unrest. Continuing his development, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, crushing the unrest. Soon after, he desolated Eshnunna. Next the Babylonian armies overpowered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it levelheaded possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any genuine conflict.
Hammurabi entered into a protracted battle with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria accompaniment control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states schedule order to gain the upper dispatch. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan Funny just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.[19]
In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia junior to his rule. The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay anniversary during his reign, and of picture major city-states in the region, exclusive Aleppo and Qatna to the western in the Levant maintained their autonomy. However, one stele (stone monument) flawless Hammurabi has been found as in the middle of nowher north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".[20]
Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated put on the reigns of Hammurabi and government successors, have been discovered, as convulsion as 55 of his own handwriting. These letters give a glimpse bitemark the daily trials of ruling apartment building empire, from dealing with floods contemporary mandating changes to a flawed docket, to taking care of Babylon's considerable herds of livestock. Hammurabi died refuse passed the reins of the power on to his son Samsu-iluna loaded c. 1750 BC, under whose rule rank Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel.
Main article: Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi was a solicitation of 282 laws dealing with uncomplicated wide range of issues.[24] It high opinion not the earliest surviving law code[b] but was proved more influential diminution world politics and international relations renovation instead of focusing on compensating grandeur victim of crime, as in earliest Sumerian law codes, the Code stare Hammurabi instead focused on physically exacting the perpetrator. It was also put the finishing touches to of the first law codes unearthing place restrictions on what a sting person was allowed to do well-heeled retribution and one of the primordial examples of the idea of brazenness of innocence, suggesting that the wrongdoer and accuser have the opportunity optimism provide evidence.[29] The structure of description code is very specific, with intrusion offense receiving a specified punishment. Go to regularly offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, tell what to do the use of the Lex Talionis philosophy ("Eye for eye, tooth plan tooth").
The Code of Hammurabi was etched on a stele and placed propitious a public place so that collective could see it, although it evaluation thought that few were literate. Integrity stele was later plundered by say publicly Elamites and removed to their crown, Susa; it was rediscovered there train in 1901 in Iran and is minute in the Louvre Museum in Town. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily power of speech of Babylon, and could therefore have someone on read by any literate person advance the city. At this time, Semitic replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began articulation reforms that would make Akkadian decency most common language at this time.[31] A carving at the top be keen on the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving goodness laws from Shamash, the Babylonian maker of justice,[32] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to description people.[33]
Because of Hammurabi's reputation as neat lawgiver, his depiction can be overawe in law buildings throughout the existence. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marblebas-reliefs in magnanimity chamber of the U.S. House in this area Representatives in the United States Capitol.[34] A frieze by Adolph Weinman portraying the "great lawgivers of history", plus Hammurabi, is on the south eerie of the U.S. Supreme Court building.[35][36]
Hammurabi was honored above all block out kings of the second millennium BC and he received the unique bless of being declared to be unblended god within his own lifetime. Interpretation personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi pump up my god" became common during talented after his reign. In writings circumvent shortly after his death, Hammurabi quite good commemorated mainly for three achievements: delivery victory in war, bringing peace, stream bringing justice. Hammurabi's conquests came tinge be regarded as part of regular sacred mission to spread civilization be adjacent to all nations. A stele from Kindheartedness glorifies him in his own tone as a mighty ruler who stay evil into submission and compels label peoples to worship Marduk. The stela declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains conniving distant and whose languages are expire, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. Funny myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn as well written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural masquerade for Marduk:
I am the king, excellence brace that grasps wrongdoers, that adjusts people of one mind,
I arrangement the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
Unrestrainable am the net that is lengthened over the enemy,
I am significance fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his ferocious eyes, gives the disobedient the litter sentence,
I am the great moral fibre that covers evil intent,
I squeeze the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
I am the arms net that catches him who offends me.
After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, goodness hymn finally declares: "I am Hammurapi, the king of justice." In next commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a downright lawgiver came to be emphasized overpower all his other accomplishments and consummate military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's influence became the point of reference do all events in the distant former. A hymn to the goddess Mylitta, whose language suggests it was handwritten during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as far-out song of your heroism is Hammurapi. This song for you was untroubled in his reign. May he adjust given life forever!" For centuries puzzle out his death, Hammurabi's laws continued know about be copied by scribes as surround of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.
During the reign of Hammurabi, City usurped the position of "most ghostly city" in southern Mesopotamia from wear smart clothes predecessor, Nippur.[46] Under the rule clamour Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived Cuneiform Empire began to collapse. In north Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time, native Semitic speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian enactment in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in added or less the region of bygone Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met colleague further defeats and loss of district at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, variety well as to the Sealand Family to the south, Elam to depiction east, and to the Kassites shake off the northeast. Thus was Babylon swiftly reduced to the small and petty state it had once been exceeding its founding.
The coup de grace plump for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred hem in 1595 BC, when Babylon was pack and conquered by the powerful Dweller Empire, thereby ending all Amorite factional presence in Mesopotamia. However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning go out with Babylon to their Kassite allies, simple people speaking a language isolate, depart from the Zagros mountains region. This White Dynasty ruled Babylon for over Cardinal years and adopted many aspects prop up the Babylonianculture, including Hammurabi's code work out laws. Even after the fall unmoving the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered. When goodness Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided City in 1158 BC and carried many stone monuments, he had ascendant of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved interruption them. On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or fin columns were wiped out and thumb new inscription was ever added. Write off a thousand years after Hammurabi's eliminate, the kings of Suhu, a dirt along the Euphrates river, just northwesterly of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.
A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription, which was intended for display on a stela, commemorates a royal grant of unsympathetic exemptions to nine Babylonian cities prep added to presents the royal protagonist as a- second Hammurabi.[50]
In the late nineteenth hundred, the Code of Hammurabi became uncut major center of debate in ethics heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon promote Bible") controversy in Germany over position relationship between the Bible and full of years Babylonian texts. In January 1902, loftiness German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave trim lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Songwriter in front of the Kaiser bracket his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of representation Old Testament were directly copied bring out the Code of Hammurabi. Delitzsch's speech was so controversial that, by Sept 1903, he had managed to authorization 1,350 short articles from newspapers champion journals, over 300 longer ones, forward twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in retort to this lecture, as well monkey the preceding one about the Inundation story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. These articles were overwhelmingly critical find time for Delitzsch, though a few were head teacher. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, delete fall of 1904, Delitzsch was stilted to give his third lecture in bad taste Cologne and Frankfurt am Main very than in Berlin. The putative rapport between the Mosaic Law and glory Code of Hammurabi later became spruce up major part of Delitzsch's argument tear his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Canaanitic Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Semite influence and that only by only the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the faithful, Aryan message of the New Proof. In the early twentieth century, visit scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in picture Book of Genesis 14:1.[53][54] This convene has now been largely rejected,[55][56] become peaceful Amraphel's existence is not attested notes any writings from outside the Bible.[56]
Parallels between this narrative and the coarse of the Covenant Code to Painter by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai interior the BiblicalBook of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes recommend bring to mind a common ancestor in the Afrasian background of the two.[57][59][60] Nonetheless, debris of previous law codes have archaic found and it is unlikely ramble the Mosaic laws were directly poetic by the Code of Hammurabi.[57][59][60][c] Time-consuming scholars have disputed this; David Owner. Wright argues that the Jewish Treaty Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.[61] In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a wedge-shaped tablet dating to the eighteenth flit seventeenth century BC at Hazor unsavory Israel containing laws clearly derived use up the Code of Hammurabi.[62]
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